URBANISATON IN INDIA

Urbanisation in India

Mumbai, Maharashtra is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan areapopulation of approximately 20.5 million.

Urbanization in India began to accelerate after independence, due to the country's adoption of a mixed economy, which gave rise to the development of the private sector. Urbanisation is taking place at a faster rate in India. Population residing in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11.4%.^[1] This count increased to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and crossing 30% as per 2011 census, standing at 31.16%. According to a survey by UN State of the World Population report in 2007, by 2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected to reside in urban areas.As per World Bank, India, along with China, Indonesia, Nigeria, and the United States, will lead the world's urban population surge by 2050

Bombay (Mumbai) saw large scale rural-urban migration in the 20th century Mumbai accommodates 12.5 million people, and is the largest metropolis by population in India, followed by Delhi with 11 million inhabitants. Witnessing the fastest rate of and urbanisation in the world, as per 2011 census, Delhi's population rise by 4.1%, Mumbai's by 3.1% and Kolkata's by 2% as per 2011 census compared to 2001 census.

Contents

  

• 1History
  • 1.1The transition period
  • 1.2Modern India
• 2Causes of urbanization in India
• 3Consequences of urbanization
• 4Urban unemployment
• 5References
• 6Bibliography

History

The transition period

After independence, India faced poverty, unemployment, and economic backwardness. The first Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, failed to focus on the domain of science and technology.^] The mixed economy system was adopted, resulting in the growth of the Public sector in India crippling down the development of Indian economy leading to what is popularly known as Hindu rate of growth^]

Modern India

v t e Largest urban agglomerations in India by population (2011 census)[7]
Delhi Mumbai	Rank	City Name	State/Territory	Population	Rank	City Name	State/Territory	Population	Kolkata Chennai
	1	Mumbai	Maharashtra	18,414,288	11	Kanpur	Uttar Pradesh	2,920,067
	2	Delhi	Delhi	16,314,838	12	Lucknow	Uttar Pradesh	2,901,474
	3	Kolkata	West Bengal	14,112,536	13	Nagpur	Maharashtra	2,497,777
	4	Chennai	Tamil Nadu	8,696,010	14	Ghaziabad	Uttar Pradesh	2,358,525
	5	Bengaluru	Karnataka	8,499,399	15	Indore	Madhya Pradesh	2,167,447
	6	Hyderabad	Telangana	7,749,334	16	Coimbatore	Tamil Nadu	2,151,466
	7	Ahmedabad	Gujarat	6,352,254	17	Kochi	Kerala	2,117,990
	8	Pune	Maharashtra	5,049,968	18	Patna	Bihar	2,046,652
	9	Surat	Gujarat	4,585,367	19	Kozhikode	Kerala	2,030,519
	10	Jaipur	Rajasthan	3,073,350	20	Thrissur	Kerala	1,854,783

The contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP of India started to decline and the percentage contribution from secondary sector increased. The period after 1941, witnessed rapid growth of four metropolitan cities in India, which were Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai.^[8] The nation's economy saw a rise due to industrial revolution and the invention of new technologies increased the standard of living of people living in urban areas.^[9] The growth of public sector resulted in development of public transport, roads, water supply, electricity, and hence the infrastructure of urban areas.

Maharashtra was the most urbanized state in India till 1991, stood behind Tamil Nadu in 2001 and third after it in 2011, with Kerala being second,^[10] with the urban-total state population ratio. However, Maharashtra's urban population of 41 million, far exceeds that of Tamil Nadu which is at 27 million, as per the 2001 census.

Causes of urbanization in India

The main causes of urbanization in India are:

• Expansion in government services, as a result of the Second World War
• Migration of people during the partition of India
• The Industrial Revolution^[15]
• Eleventh five-year plan that aimed at urbanization for the economic development of India^[16]
• Economic opportunities are just one reason people move into cities
• Infrastructure facilities in the urban areas^[
• Growth of private sector after 1990 
• Growth of employment in cities is attracting people from rural areas as well as smaller cities to large towns. According to Mckinsey India's urban population will grow from 340 million in 2008 to 590 million in 2030.
• Therefore, it is being driven by economic compulsions where people move out for economic advancements to areas offering better job opportunities.
• It is also driven by land fragmentations, villages being erased due to roads and highway constructions, dam constructions and other activities.

Consequences of urbanization

Crowded housing and polluted waterway in Mumbai

Rapid rise in urban population, in India, is leading to many problems like increasing slums, decrease in standard of living in urban areas, also causing environmental damage.^[19]

The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century caused countries like United States and England to become superpower nations but the present condition is worsening. India's urban growth rate is 2.07% which seems to be significant compared to Rwanda with 7.6%. India has around 300 million people living in metropolitan areas.^[20] This has greatly caused slum problems, with so many people over crowding cities and forcing people to live in unsafe conditions which also includes illegal buildings. Water lines,roads and electricity are lacking which is causing fall of living standards. It is also adding to the problem of all types of pollution

Urbanization also results in a disparity in the market, owing to the large demands of the growing population and the primary sector struggling to cope with them.

Allan Chirare, 15 August 2015 quotes: "Urbanization is just becoming a disaster to the city of Mumbai in India."

It can be argued that urbanization impacts the migrant himself at multiple levels. His network of friends and family become his support system during the initial transformation phase and the struggle to find a job. His struggle could take months to years in order to find a stable job. He is responsible to support himself in the city and family back home.

Some of positive shifts that have been back home from where migrants come, easing out of financial pressures as well as lifestyle up gradation of family through better homes and products that the migrant sends back.

On the otherhand, it poses a big challenge for the cities that are growing due to migrant population shifting in. How will cities support in terms of resources, land and space.

Urban unemployment

The National Sample Survey Organisation reported the following urban unemployment rates for the period July 2011–June 2012

Category of persons	Male	Female	Person
Unemployment rate (per 1000 persons in the labour force)	30	52	34

Media Effects on Children’s Social and Moral Development

For the past 60 years, the primary focus of concern about children’s media use has been whether it makes them more hostile and aggressive and increases their chances of becoming violent adults. A parallel but much smaller body of research has focused on whether, and under what conditions, there may be prosocial outcomes of media use.

Over the years, various theories have sought to explain short- and long-term effects of exposure on viewers’ attitudes and behaviors. Although most were developed within the context of media violence research, they also help explain effects of other types of content and predict other outcomes besides physical violence. See the article Media Effects for a review of these theories.

Theorizing How Effects May Occur

The General Learning Model (Buckley and Anderson, 2006) proposes that media-based experiences contribute to users’ knowledge structures, including their person schemata (i.e., typical characteristics of people or groups of people) and their behavioral scripts (expectations of how people behave in particular situations). Furthermore, the theory proposes that these knowledge structures can contain links to affective states evoked by the initial experience (e.g., anger, fear, warmth) and information about what emotions are typical or appropriate in a given situation. When activated, these interconnected components (person schemata, behavioral scripts, affect, and affective knowledge) may then interact with other factors (personality, values, long-term goals, etc.) to influence people’s appraisals and reactions.

How does this apply to young viewers’ responses to violent or aggressive content? In the short term, exposure to violent, hostile content (whether in TV programing, in films, in music, or in video games) increases the probability that aggressive thoughts and feelings are activated and tends to increase arousal. These thoughts and feelings, combined with arousal, increase the probability that young viewers will behave aggressively. In the long term, repeated exposure to violence appears to alter viewers’ beliefs and attitudes about aggression, decreasing their tendency to notice and respond to real-world pain and suffering and increasing their tendency to interpret social situations in hostile ways. These in turn appear to increase the probability that heavy consumers of media violence will act in hostile or aggressive ways.

Effects of Media Violence on Children’s Physical Aggression

Bushman and Huesmann (2006) conducted a meta-analysis of 431 studies related to the effects of media violence, of which 264 focused specifically on children (for a total sample of 50 312 children aged 18 or younger). Studies were included if they assessed the impact of violent content in TV programs, films, video games, music, or comic books. Across this sizable body of research, both experimental and self-selected exposure to media violence were associated with negative outcomes: more aggressive behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, as well reduced helping behavior. The authors also noted that although short-term effects (measured experimentally) were somewhat stronger for adults than for children, long-term relationships between self-selected exposure and subsequent aggression (in some studies, measured years later) were stronger for exposure during childhood than during adulthood.

In one major study (Huesmann et al., 2003), over 400 US 6- to 9-year-olds were surveyed about their exposure to and interpretations of TV violence. Fifteen years later (i.e., when the participants were aged 21–23), their levels of aggression were assessed through several means: (1) interviews with the participant, (2) interviews with a spouse, close friend, or significant other, and (3) by examining criminal records. Childhood exposure to TV violence predicted individuals’ physical aggression as adults. These relationships between childhood exposure and adult aggression were stronger for those who, as children, had perceived TV violence to be realistic and who had identified with same-sex aggressive TV heroes and heroines.

Effects of TV Content on Children’s Non-Physical Aggression

The Huesman et al. (2003) longitudinal study of media violence also found that among women in the sample childhood exposure to TV violence predicted nonphysical aggressive acts in adulthood (e.g., trying to get someone into trouble). Other studies conducted in England and the United States have also found relationships between children’s media use and their tendency to engage in various forms of nonphysical aggression (often referred to as indirect, relational, or social aggression). These types of aggression involve intentionally harming someone’s social standing, often by manipulative acts such as gossiping, spreading rumors, or exclusion. In various studies, including a recent longitudinal study by Gentile et al. (2011), preteens or young teens who watched more programs featuring these forms of interpersonal hostility were more likely to engage in those behaviors themselves. There is some indication that such relationships are more likely to be observed for females than for males.

Effects of Media Racial and Gender Stereotyping

Researchers who have documented racial and gender biases in media depictions of reality have long speculated about the implications for children’s feelings, beliefs, and attitudes. Content analyses of TV and magazine content in the United States continue to document underrepresentation and stereotyped representations of females and non-Anglo ethnic/racial groups. At the same time, surveys of non-Anglo children in the United States indicate a strong desire to see representations of their own group and an awareness of racial bias in news and entertainment depictions (Children Now, 1999).

Taken together, these patterns may help explain the findings of a longitudinal study conducted by Martins and Harrison (2012) with over 400 children aged 7–12 in the United States. They found that television exposure in second to fourth grade was associated with decreased self-esteem 1 year later among Anglo and African American girls and African American boys (i.e., those groups that tend to be underrepresented and misrepresented on US TV programing). In contrast, television viewing was associated with an increase in self-esteem among Anglo-American boys. These relationships were significant even after controlling for age, body satisfaction, and baseline self-esteem.

Media content may also shape children’s broader beliefs about social roles, such as gender roles. Oppliger (2007) conducted a meta-analysis of 31 studies conducted in a variety of countries, examining the relationship between media use (including TV, magazine, and film use) and gender role stereotyping. Measures of stereotyping included judgments about the appropriateness of various occupations for men and women, the appropriateness of playing with sex-typed toys, estimates of the number of men and women in various occupations, and behavioral measures such as the child’s own play behaviors, reported performance of gender-normative chores, and imitation of counter-stereotypical role models. Across the subset of studies dealing specifically with children, there was a small but significant relationship between exposure and stereotype-consistent beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCHOOL SUBJECT AND ACADEMIC DISIPLINE

Difference Between Discipline and Subject

Key Difference – Discipline vs Subject

 

Discipline and Subject are two words that relate to fields of knowledge between which a key difference can be seen. To most people, the difference between a discipline and a subject can often be very confusing. So first let us define the two words. Discipline refers to a branch of academic study. On the other hand, subject refers to a branch of knowledge studied or taught. As you can see from the definitions, the term discipline is associated with academia, unlike in the case of a subject. This is the key difference between the two words. This article aims at clarifying the meanings of the two   words                      

What is a Discipline?

Let us begin with the word discipline. As mentioned above, discipline refers to a branch of academic study. For example, psychology, sociology, anthropology, mathematics and philosophyare all disciplines. These can mostly be seen in higher educational institutions such as universities. This, however, does not denote that disciplines cannot be seen in other educational settings such as schools. For example, mathematics is a school subject that is also a discipline that is found in higher educational institutions.

Disciplines usually consist of theoretical backgrounds, research and experiments, groups of experts in the discipline, etc. For example, a person who is pursuing his studies in a particular discipline not only gains an in-depth understanding of it but also conducts experiments or research as well. Such a person is considered as specializing in the chosen discipline.

However, the word discipline can also refer to the training of people to obey rules or a code of behavior. For example in schools disciplining the child is considered as an important part of learning as subject knowledge.

What is a Subject?

Subject refers to a branch of knowledge studied or taught. In schools, children learn a number of subjects such as mathematics, science, language, history, religion, music, art, dancing, health, etc. These subjects are also branches of knowledge but are often adjusted to accommodate the goals of education. When speaking of subjects attention paid to research is rather minimal.

The word subject has other meanings as well. It is used to refer to the word in a sentence naming who or what performs the action of the verb. Let us look at an example.

Jim played tennis.

In the sentence, the subject or the person who does the action is Jim. Hence, Jim is the subject.

It can be used to refer to a member of a state ruled by a monarch. For instance when we say the kind addressed his subjects, it denotes that the king spoke to his people.

What is the difference between Discipline and Subject?

Definitions of Discipline and Subject:

Discipline: Discipline refers to a branch of academic study.

Subject: Subject refers to a branch of knowledge studied or taught.

Characteristics of Discipline and Subject:

Goal:

Discipline: A discipline produces academics or specialists.

Subject: A subject attempts to provide knowledge that is in line with the overall educational purpose.

Context:

Discipline: Disciplines are taught in higher educational institutions such as universities.

Subject: Subjects are taught in educational institutions such as schools.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY-ICT

DEFINITION

ICT (information and communications technology, or technologies)

   

Contributor(s): Mary K. Pratt

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ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is infrastructure and components that enable modern computing.

the

Although there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted to mean all devices, networking components, applications and systems that combined allow people and organizations (i.e., businesses, nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal enterprises) to interact in the digital world.

Components of an ICT system

ICT encompasses both the internet-enabled sphere as well as the mobile one powered by wireless networks. It also includes antiquated technologies, such as landline telephones, radio and television broadcast -- all of which are still widely used today alongside cutting-edge ICT pieces such as artificial intelligence and robotics.

ICT is sometimes used synonymously with IT (for information technology); however, ICT is generally used to represent a broader, more comprehensive list of all components related to computer and digital technologies than IT.

The list of ICT components is exhaustive, and it continues to grow. Some components, such as computers and telephones, have existed for decades. Others, such as smartphones, digital TVs and robots, are more recent entries.

ICT commonly means more than its list of components, though. It also encompasses the application of all those various components. It's here that the real potential, power and danger of ICT can be found.

ICT's societal and economic impact

ICT is leveraged for economic, societal and interpersonal transactions and interactions. ICT has drastically changed how people work, communicate, learn and live. Moreover, ICT continues to revolutionize all parts of the human experience as first computers and now robots do many of the tasks once handled by humans. For example, computers once answered phones and directed calls to the appropriate individuals to respond; now robots not only can answer the calls, but they can often more quickly and efficiently handle callers' requests for services.

ICT's importance to economic development and business growth has been so monumental, in fact, that it's credited with ushering in what many have labeled the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

ICT also underpins broad shifts in society, as individuals en masse are moving from personal, face-to-face interactions to ones in the digital space. This new era is frequently termed the Digital Age.

For all its revolutionary aspects, though, ICT capabilities aren't evenly distributed. Simply put, richer countries and richer individuals enjoy more access and thus have a greater ability to seize on the advantages and opportunities powered by ICT.

Consider, for example, some findings from the World Bank. In 2016, it stated that more than 75% of people worldwide have access to a cellphone. However, internet access through either mobile or fixed broadband remains prohibitively expensive in many countries due to a lack of ICT infrastructure. Furthermore, the World Bank estimated that out of the global population of 7.4 billion people, more than 4 billion don't have access to the internet. Additionally, it estimated that only 1.1 billion people have access to high-speed internet.

In the United States and elsewhere, this discrepancy in access to ICT has created the so-called digital divide.

The World Bank, numerous governmental authorities and non-government organizations(NGOs) advocate policies and programs that aim to bridge the digital divide by providing greater access to ICT among those individuals and populations struggling to afford it.

These various institutions assert that those without ICT capabilities are left out of the multiple opportunities and benefits that ICT creates and will therefore fall further behind in socio-economic terms.

The United Nations considers one of its Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) to "significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the internet in least developed countries by 2020."

Economic advantages are found both within the ICT market as well as in the larger areas of business and society as a whole.

Within the ICT market, the advancement of ICT capabilities has made the development and delivery of various technologies cheaper for ICT vendors and their customers while also providing new market opportunities. For instance, telephone companies that once had to build and maintain miles of telephone lines have shifted to more advanced networking materials and can provide telephone, television and internet services; consumers now enjoy more choices in delivery and price points as a result.

The significance of ICT in enterprises

For businesses, advances within ICT have brought a slew of cost savings, opportunities and conveniences. They range from highly automated businesses processes that have cut costs, to the big data revolution where organizations are turning the vast trove of data generated by ICT into insights that drive new products and services, to ICT-enabled transactions such as internet shopping and telemedicine and social media that give customers more choices in how they shop, communicate and interact.

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